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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Kalecki’s Ingredients: Profits, Class Struggle and Cartels
Kalecki joined in 1929 the newly created Polish Institute for the Study of Business Cycles and Prices (ISBCP, Osiatyński, 1990: xii) ${ }^6$ Once there, he completed a number of works in collaboration with statisticians and made his first contact with the Econometric Society. Meanwhile, he published a series of papers on the ongoing depression that formed the basis of his 1933 Essay.
After Pisudski’s coup in 1926, the new government saw the necessity of a systematic gathering of information about the economy in order to manage it efficiently. The ISBCP was thus created in 1928 by the new Minister of Trade and Finance Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski. It was headed by Edward Lipinski, then a young university professor at the School of Commerce (SGH). ${ }^7$ The institute combined two types of activity: surveys of business conditions at the level of firms and sectors (in particular industrial organization through the study of monopolies and cartels) and studies of business cycles (Osiatyński, 1990: 436). Enjoying a certain level of independence, Lipinski made the choice to recruit young researchers, most of whom, for political or religious reasons, did not have the opportunity of obtaining better positions. In a very short time, he managed to build a strong team, including Kalecki, Jan Wiśniewski, Ludwick Landau and Marek Breit, and they all participated in the activities of the Econometric Society. ${ }^8$
Within three years, the statisticians of the ISBCP trained Kalecki in various statistical techniques that he adopted and used to deal with a whole set of new economic data. Kalecki was officially responsible for the studies on cartels, and he could use the work of Wiśniewski who had constructed a new price index taking into account the market power of firms. ${ }^9$ They also worked together on the possible ways to eliminate seasonal movements in unemployment. In addition, Kalecki worked with Landau on the estimation of investment activity and he built with him a specific method allowing to account for the data communicated by Polish firms, a work which culminated in a major study on the estimation of Polish national income.
During the 1930s, Poland went through a period of political, social and economic turmoil which contributed to the growing popularity of Pilsudski and an enduring pressure on left-wing political organizations and public administrations. At the institute level, this resulted in November 1931 in the laying off of Lipinski’s deputy Stanislaw Pszczolkowski in charge of business cycle studies. ${ }^{10}$ Aware of the risks of losing his position, Kalecki chose to share his political and economic views under the pseudonym of Henryk Braun in a series of articles. In 1932, together with Oskar Lange, he took part in the launch of a new monthly journal, the Socialist Review (Przeglad Socjalistyczny), whose editorial agenda was to address issues independently from the communist party. ${ }^{11}$ However, barely a year after its first issue, the journal was shut down. It was nevertheless enough time for Kalecki to publish a dozen articles in which he had the opportunity to outline to the political left the main ideas which became the ingredients of his macro-dynamic approach.
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Profits and Class Struggle
For Kalecki, the existence of a class of people who do not possess any means of production should be the point of departure of any economic analysis. ${ }^{12}$ Thus, he constantly developed models with a class of capitalists and a class of workers, and all these models had in common a mechanism where the origin of profits, on which depended the movements of the economy, was independent of the power that capitalists may exercise within their own organization or in what Marx called the sphere of production. Instead, he argued that profits originated in the “sphere of circulation” where goods are sold, in accordance with the idea that capitalists earn as much as they spend. ${ }^{13}$
This idea required the existence of a monetary system able to create new purchasing power as well as the existence of a “reserve army of the unemployed.” ${ }^{14}$ Only then did capitalists spendings could potentially push firms to adjust their levels of production and employment, the formation of real profits in the sphere of production therefore only validating a posteriori profits “created” ex nihilo in the sphere of circulation. This reveals that in Kalecki’s system, value added comes less from the exploitation of workers inside firms than from spending decisions of capitalists in the circulation sphere. For that very reason, a rise in profits is never the result of a struggle to the advantage of the capitalists to get a larger share of the national income as it is the case for Marx. ${ }^{15}$ In Kalecki’s world, capitalists have in their hands the whole fate of the economy, while workers lack any power on the mechanism of profit formation. Thus the relations between classes can impact the cycle only through their influences on political decisions which have the ability to shape the capitalists’ decisions.
The case of the effects of reduction in money wages was discussed by Kalecki in 1932 (1990g). He built a small numerical example to illustrate why a decrease in wages could lead to a situation of deflation leading to a transfer of purchasing power between workers and capitalists, while leaving aggregate output and employment unchanged. His example started from the equilibrium condition between “social output” and “money income.” This can be represented by the following equation:
$$
Y=C_W+C_\pi+I=W+P
$$
where $Y$ is real income, $C_W$ is the workers consumption, $C_\pi$ is the capitalists consumption, $I$ is investment, $W$ is the total real wage bill and $P$ total profits. This equation was at the heart of Kalecki’s subsequent models, but he specified differently its components, especially the capitalists’ consumption. A constant throughout his models is that the whole of workers’ wages are consumed so that $W=C_W$.
宏观经济学代考
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Kalecki’s Ingredients: Profits, Class Struggle and Cartels
Kalecki 于 1929 年加入了新成立的波兰商业周期和价格研究所 (ISBCP, Osiatyński, 1990: xii)6在那里，他与统计学家合作完成了多项工作，并首次接触了计量经济学会。与此同时，他发表了一系列关于持续萧条的论文，这些论文构成了他 1933 年随笔的基础。
1926 年毕苏斯基发动政变后，新政府意识到有必要系统地收集有关经济的信息，以便对其进行有效管理。因此，ISBCP 于 1928 年由新任贸易和财政部长 Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski 创建。它由 Edward Lipinski 领导，当时他是商学院 (SGH) 的一名年轻大学教授。7该研究所结合了两种类型的活动：在公司和部门层面调查商业状况（特别是通过研究垄断和卡特尔的产业组织）和商业周期研究（Osiatyński，1990：436）。享有一定程度的独立性，利平斯基决定招募年轻的研究人员，其中大多数人出于政治或宗教原因没有机会获得更好的职位。在很短的时间内，他就组建了一支强大的团队，包括 Kalecki、Jan Wiśniewski、Ludwick Landau 和 Marek Breit，他们都参与了计量经济学会的活动。8
三年之内，ISBCP 的统计人员对 Kalecki 进行了各种统计技术的培训，他采用并使用这些技术来处理一整套新的经济数据。Kalecki 正式负责对卡特尔的研究，他可以使用 Wiśniewski 的工作，Wiśniewski 构建了一个新的价格指数，同时考虑了公司的市场力量。9他们还共同研究消除失业季节性变动的可能方法。此外，Kalecki 与 Landau 合作估算投资活动，并与 Landau 一起建立了一种特殊的方法，可以解释波兰公司交流的数据，这项工作最终导致了一项关于波兰国民收入估算的重大研究。
在 1930 年代，波兰经历了一段政治、社会和经济动荡时期，这导致毕苏斯基越来越受欢迎，左翼政治组织和公共行政部门承受着持久的压力。在研究所层面，这导致 1931 年 11 月 Lipinski 的副手 Stanislaw Pszczolkowski 被解雇，负责商业周期研究。10意识到失去职位的风险，Kalecki 选择以 Henryk Braun 的笔名在一系列文章中分享他的政治和经济观点。1932 年，他与奥斯卡·兰格 (Oskar Lange) 一起参与了新月刊《社会主义评论》(Przeglad Socjalistyczny) 的创刊，其编辑议程是独立于共产党解决问题。11然而，在第一期发行后不到一年，该杂志就被停刊了。尽管如此，Kalecki 还是有足够的时间发表十几篇文章，在这些文章中，他有机会向政治左派概述成为他的宏观动态方法的组成部分的主要思想。
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Profits and Class Struggle
对于 Kalecki 来说，不拥有任何生产资料的人群的存在应该是任何经济分析的出发点。
${ }^{12}$ 因此，他不断地开发一个资本家阶级和一个工人阶级的模型，所有这些模型都有一个 共同的机制，在这个机制中，利润的来源独立于资本家可能行使的权力，而利润的来源 取决于经济的运动。在他们自己的组织内，或者在马克思所说的生产领域内。相反，他 认为利润起源于商品销售的“流通领域”，符合资本家赚得和花得一样多的想法。 13
这个想法需要存在能够创造新购买力的货币体系以及存在”失业后备军”。 ${ }^{14}$ 只有这样， 资本家的支出才有可能推动企业调整生产和就业水平，生产领域实际利润的形成因此只 能验证流通领域“创造”出来的后验利润。这表明，在 Kalecki 的系统中，增加值更多地 来自资本家在流通领域的支出决策，而不是来自公司内部对工人的剥削。正是出于这个 原因，利润的增加从来都不是资本家为获得更大份额的国民收入而进行的斗争的结果， 就像马克思的情况一样。 ${ }^{15}$ 在卡莱茨基的世界里，资本家掌握着整个经济的命运，而工 人对利润形成机制没有任何权力。因此，阶级之间的关系只能通过它们对能够影响资本 家决策的政治决策的影响来影响周期。
Kalecki 在 1932 年 (1990g) 讨论了货币工资减少的影响案例。他建立了一个小的数字例 子来说明为什么工资下降会导致通货紧缩，导致工人和资本家之间的购买力转移，同时 保持总产出和就业不变。他的例子是从“社会产出”和“货币收入”的均衡条件开始的。这 可以用以下等式表示:
$$
Y=C_W+C_\pi+I=W+P
$$
在哪里 $Y$ 是实际收入， $C_W$ 是工人消费， $C_\pi$ 是资本家的消费， $I$ 是投资， $W$ 是实际工资 总额 $P$ 利润总额。这个等式是 Kalecki 随后模型的核心，但他以不同的方式指定了它的 组成部分，尤其是资本家的消费。在他的模型中，一个常数是工人的全部工资都被消费 了，因此 $W=C_W$.
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