经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Closing the Model: Determinants of Cyclical Fluctuations

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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Closing the Model: Determinants of Cyclical Fluctuations

In Frisch (1933), the way Frisch introduced his economic model was a direct continuation of the debate with Clark. To ease into the determination of important variables, he presented a “tableau économique,” that he decomposed into several “receptacles,” machines of production and variables. ${ }^9$ While the “tableau économique” was a complete picture of the economy, Frisch admitted that he needed to simplify it further to be able to analyze it, and only then could he complexify it progressively to bring it closer to empirical data.

This simplification was made in the framework of three important pairs of concepts that came to define the approach of early econometricians to the business cycle: a distinction between propagation and impulse, a distinction between a dynamic approach and the static equations of the Walrasian equilibrium, where “all the variables belong to the same point of time” (Frisch, 1933: 2) and a distinction between two types of dynamics: the micro-dynamic and the macro-dynamic types (the distinction explored in Chap. 2). We will examine here how Frisch constructed his analysis inside those three oppositions.

Frisch’s model began with the same relation between investment and consumption presented in the debate with Clark. There are two sectors of production for consumption goods and for capital goods, and all consumption goods are consumed. The stock of capital is an essential part of the analysis, and its depreciation is a function of its use to produce both types of goods. With $x$ and $y$ the production of consumer goods and capital goods, and $h$ and $k$ two technical constants representing the depreciation of each goods, the total depreciation of capital $\delta$ is taken to be $h \cdot x+k \cdot y$. At the stationary level where there are no changes in consumption and in the capital stock, the yearly investment must equal the total depreciation $\delta$, which means that $y=h \cdot x+k \cdot y \Rightarrow y=m x$, where $m=\frac{h}{1-k}$ represents another formulation of the depreciation of capital, measured in units of consumer goods. The production of capital goods $y$ is then equal to the replacement of depreciated capital plus an additional amount to sustain a rising consumption, or conversely a smaller amount when depreciation diminishes:
$$
y=m x+\mu \dot{x}
$$
where $m$ and $\mu$ are constants to be empirically determined. Even though the variables and parameters changed letters, this is for all purposes the same equation as in the debate with Clark (and the equation estimated by Tinbergen and explicitly mentioned in private letters). But this time, Frisch closed his model and proposed another equation to determine the level of consumption; however, his first proposition to close the model was designed to show that even though it became determinate, this did not entail that oscillations were possible and the first propagation mechanism actually showed a trajectory without turning points for all parameter values. Does this mean that the whole model of propagation and shocks did not fluctuate? Not necessarily so as we will see in the next section.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Impulse Problem: Is the Cycle Completely Random?

When he came to examine the effect of shocks on a propagation mechanism, Frisch abandoned his economic model in favor of a much simpler pendulum equation, which does not yield an infinite series of harmonics and does not depend on the past states of the system as his model does. This part is now very well-known, and has been rightly pointed out as one of Frisch’s main contributions to economics, earning him the right to be (with Tinbergen) the first recipient of the “Nobel” Prize in Economics in 1969.

It should also be noted that in Frisch’s approach, shocks are not necessary to explain the turning point of the cycle, as was the case for instance in the Wicksellian analysis. ${ }^{24}$ Indeed Frisch could explain the turning point endogenously, but introduced shocks because his model was stable and converged toward an equilibrium level: the persistence of shocks hitting the economy explains that this point of equilibrium is in fact never obtained. This is a different perspective on the role of shocks than that of Hamburger, partly inspired by Yule who gave an example of children hitting a pendulum with peas, thus giving it seemingly random fluctuations. With his strong scientific background, Frisch was able to see and to present clearly the way in which shocks impact a system governed by dynamic laws of motion, with the idea that the system acts as a linear operator on the shocks.

As noted by T. Koopmans, this means that the shocks will act as new “initial conditions” impacting the phase and amplitude of the cycle:
in models employing a system of linear difference equations, it was found that the period and degree of damping of (each of) the cyclical movement(s) permitted by the equation system are determined by the numerical values of the parameters (coefficients and lags) of the structural equations, whereas the amplitude and phase of the cyclical movement (or of each cyclical component) at any given time are determined by initial conditions and by subsequent external (exogenous) influences, systematic or random. (Koopmans, 1949: 65)
This approach also offered a way out of Slutzky’s scathing critique of the statistical approach to business cycle research in the 1920s. While Slutzky’s 1927 article on “The Summation of Random Causes as the Source of Cyclic Processes” (translated in English in Slutzky 1937) has been the subject of many different interpretations, ${ }^{25}$ two main interpretations can be distinguished: the first is that with any series of completely random numbers, we can always create regular fluctuations by applying some transformations creating autocorrelations, in particular moving averages. This means that any observed fluctuation could be an artifact of the construction of the series, and everything could rise from pure randomness; there was no need for complicated explanations of turning points and depression, it was all just the result of chaotic movements decided outside of the economic system proper. The second interpretation was that the moving average itself was not a purely statistical artifact, but an economically meaningful process which was the source of the fluctuations. Frisch adopted this second, more positive view of Slutzky’s argument, with the idea that random shocks impacted the economic system via its “equations of motions,” which acted as a linear operator on the shocks. While this opened the way to build systems that could be resilient to shocks, it also translated a worldview where economic agents were subjected to the whims of external gods throwing shocks at them and making it impossible to ever obtain a stationary position. Compared to Hamburger’s approach where shocks could stall or accelerate the moment when the system “discharged” or “charged,” shocks thus had a very different effect in Frisch’s model. In fact, one can show that shocks had a different effect when they were applied to his economic model rather than the simple pendulum.

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Closing the Model: Determinants of Cyclical Fluctuations

在 Frisch (1933) 中,Frisch 介绍他的经济模型的方式是与 Clark 辩论的直接延续。为了 简化重要变量的确定,他提出了一个”经济画面”,他将其分解为几个”容器”、生产机器 和变量。 ${ }^9$ 虽然”经济表”是经济的完整图景,但 Frisch 承认他需要进一步简化它以便能 够对其进行分析,只有这样他才能逐步将其复杂化以使其更接近经验数据。
这种简化是在二对重要概念的框架下进行的,这些概念定义了早期计量经济学家对商业 周期的研究方法: 传播和冲动之间的区别,动态方法与瓦尔拉斯均衡的静态方程之间的 区别,其中“所有变量都属于同一时间点” (Frisch,1933:2) 和两种类型的动力学之间 的区别:微观动力学和宏观动力学类型(第 2 章探讨了这种区别)。我们将在这里研 究 Frisch 如何在这三个对立面中构建他的分析。

Frisch 的模型开始于与 Clark 的辩论中提出的投资和消费之间的相同关系。消费品和资 本品有两个生产部门,所有消费品都被消费。资本存量是分析的重要组成部分,其贬值 是其用于生产两种类型商品的函数。和 $x$ 和 $y$ 削费品和资本品的生产,以及 $h$ 和 $k$ 两个技 术常数代表每一种商品的折旧,资本的总折旧 $\delta$ 被认为是 $h \cdot x+k \cdot y$. 在消费和资本存 量没有变化的固定水平上,年投资必须等于总折旧 $\delta ,$ 意思就是 $y=h \cdot x+k \cdot y \Rightarrow y=m x$ , 在哪里 $m=\frac{h}{1-k}$ 代表以消费品为单位衡量的资本折 旧的另一种表述。资本品的生产 $y$ 则等于折旧资本的替代加上维持消费增加的额外金 额,或者相反,当折旧减少时,金额较小:
$$
y=m x+\mu \dot{x}
$$
在哪里 $m$ 和 $\mu$ 是根据经验确定的常数。尽管变量和参数改变了字母,但出于所有目的, 这与与 Clark 的辩论中的方程式相同 (以及 Tinbergen 估计并在私人信件中明确提及的 方程式)。但这一次,Frisch 关闭了他的模型并提出了另一个确定消费水平的方程式: 然而,他关闭模型的第一个提议旨在表明即使它变得确定,这并不意味着振荡是可能 的,并且第一个传播机制实际上显示了一个轨迹,没有所有参数值的转折点。这是否意 味着整个传播和冲击模型没有波动? 不一定如此,我们将在下一节中看到。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Impulse Problem: Is the Cycle Completely Random?

当他开始研究冲击对传播机制的影响时,Frisch 放弃了他的经济模型,转而采用更简单的钟摆方程,该方程不会产生无限级数的谐波,也不依赖于系统过去的状态作为他的模型确实如此。这部分现在非常有名,并被正确地指出为弗里希对经济学的主要贡献之一,使他有资格成为(与丁伯根)1969 年第一个获得“诺贝尔”经济学奖的人。

还应该指出的是,在 Frisch 的方法中,冲击对于解释周期的转折点不是必需的,例如在 Wicksellian 分析中就是这种情况。24事实上,Frisch 可以内生地解释转折点,但引入了冲击,因为他的模型是稳定的并且收敛于均衡水平:冲击对经济的持续冲击解释了实际上从未达到这个均衡点。这是对电击作用的不同看法,而不是 Hamburger 的看法,部分灵感来自 Yule,他举了一个孩子用豌豆敲钟摆的例子,从而使它看似随机波动。凭借强大的科学背景,Frisch 能够看到并清楚地展示冲击影响受动态运动定律支配的系统的方式,并认为系统在冲击上充当线性运算符。

正如 T. Koopmans 所指出的,这意味着冲击将作为新的“初始条件”影响周期的相位和振幅:
在采用线性差分方程系统的模型中,发现周期和阻尼程度方程系统允许的(每个)循环运动由结构方程的参数(系数和滞后)的数值确定,而循环运动(或每个循环分量)的幅度和相位在任何给定时间由初始条件和随后的外部(外生)影响决定,系统的或随机的。(库普曼斯,1949:65)
这种方法还提供了一条出路,可以摆脱 Slutzky 对 1920 年代商业周期研究的统计方法的严厉批评。虽然 Slutzky 1927 年关于“随机原因的总和作为循环过程的来源”的文章(Slutzky 1937 年译成英文)一直是许多不同解释的主题,25可以区分两个主要的解释:第一个是对于任何一系列完全随机的数字,我们总是可以通过应用一些创建自相关的转换来创建规则的波动,特别是移动平均线。这意味着任何观察到的波动都可能是序列构造的产物,一切都可能源于纯粹的随机性;不需要对转折点和萧条进行复杂的解释,这只是在经济体系本身之外决定的混乱运动的结果。第二种解释是,移动平均线本身并不是一个纯粹的统计人工制品,而是一个具有经济意义的过程,它是波动的来源。Frisch 采纳了 Slutzky 论点的第二种更积极的观点,认为随机冲击通过其“运动方程”影响经济系统,“运动方程”充当冲击的线性算子。虽然这为构建能够抵御冲击的系统开辟了道路,但它也转化了一种世界观,即经济主体受制于外在神灵的奇思妙想,向他们投掷冲击,并且永远不可能获得静止位置。与 Hamburger 的方法相比,冲击可以在系统“放电”或“充电”的时刻停止或加速,因此冲击在 Frisch 的模型中具有非常不同的效果。事实上,人们可以证明,当冲击应用于他的经济模型而不是单摆时,会产生不同的效果。虽然这为构建能够抵御冲击的系统开辟了道路,但它也转化了一种世界观,即经济主体受制于外在神灵的奇思妙想,向他们投掷冲击,并且永远不可能获得静止位置。与 Hamburger 的方法相比,冲击可以在系统“放电”或“充电”的时刻停止或加速,因此冲击在 Frisch 的模型中具有非常不同的效果。事实上,人们可以证明,当冲击应用于他的经济模型而不是单摆时,会产生不同的效果。虽然这为构建能够抵御冲击的系统开辟了道路,但它也转化了一种世界观,即经济主体受制于外在神灵的奇思妙想,向他们投掷冲击,并且永远不可能获得静止位置。与 Hamburger 的方法相比,冲击可以在系统“放电”或“充电”的时刻停止或加速,因此冲击在 Frisch 的模型中具有非常不同的效果。事实上,人们可以证明,当冲击应用于他的经济模型而不是单摆时,会产生不同的效果。与 Hamburger 的方法相比,冲击可以在系统“放电”或“充电”的时刻停止或加速,因此冲击在 Frisch 的模型中具有非常不同的效果。事实上,人们可以证明,当冲击应用于他的经济模型而不是单摆时,会产生不同的效果。与 Hamburger 的方法相比,冲击可以在系统“放电”或“充电”的时刻停止或加速,因此冲击在 Frisch 的模型中具有非常不同的效果。事实上,人们可以证明,当冲击应用于他的经济模型而不是单摆时,会产生不同的效果。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考

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