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经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Tasks of the Owner
The owner is the entity who takes responsibility for planning and supervising construction. Owners can do this by themselves or with the help of others. They must follow all regulations and ensure safety during construction. Owners must organize the enterprise of construction and determine the market conditions by drafting a contract. For small projects, architects support the owners to this end; for larger projects, project managers perform this role.
The minimum involvement of an owner includes the following tasks:
- Develop the initial business idea.
- Provide a construction site.
- Secure project financing with the help of banks.
- Define the structure with the help of architects and engineers.
- Obtain a building permit with the help of architects and project managers.
- Formulate the contract and its conditions with the help of lawyers, quantity surveyors, or project managers.
- Determine the rules of the market exchange by the contract.
- Use the owner’s one-sided right to change the design during construction if necessary.
Table 11.2 describes the typical construction process for a traditional procurement approach, which has three phases: design, procurement, construction (design/bid/build). Other procurement approaches notably include early contractor involvement, concurrent design overlapping construction, design/build contracts, and design/build/operate contracts. Greenhalgh and Squires (2011) provide much more information on this topic. Private owners have absolute discretion to choose the procurement that best suits their purposes, which means in economic terms that they can maximize their own utility. Public owners might have limited options due to government regulations.
The tendering approach also organizes the construction market, and again the owner has absolute freedom of choice within the legal framework. If the owner wants the strongest competition possible, then open tendering is the way to go. In this case, any willing contractor can submit a bid. If the owner wants to control the quality of the contractors more closely, then the owner will opt for selective tendering with a hand-chosen number of bidders (typically, 5-10). In some instances, the owner might deem it preferable to negotiate the contract with just one bidder.
There are more ways to shape the market. Two important considerations are the specificity and the size of the contract. It is possible to bundle the project in one contract, including structure, finishing works, and building services by awarding it to a general contractor. Another choice is the letting of separate contracts to special trades. The size of the project puts financial demands on the contractors by requiring bonds, and it increases risks. Therefore, smaller contractors will be excluded from contract lots judged too large and risky.
Private owners enjoy in many countries the right of contractual choice. They can formulate any condition to their advantage as long as they do not propose immoral contract conditions. They are able to shift rights, obligations, and risks in a way to suit their own ends. Of course, there are standard contract forms as those prepared by FIDIC, which look for an equitable distribution of rights and responsibilities, but no private owner is bound to them. In many cases, this is different for public owners.
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Producers Buying Construction Goods
To assume that an owner who procures an investment good maximizes profits also seems highly plausible. Present value analysis is an excellent tool for comparing investments.
Buildings and infrastructure require an initial investment and provide continuous services over their lifetime. Using the concept of opportunity costs, investors will procure a building only if it provides the best possible return among all alternatives. Construction goods are for investors assets, which they need to pursue their business goals – be it the production of consumer goods in factories, the delivery of services in office buildings, or the provision of transportation facilities as a public good.
We have come across the strange fact that most buyers of construction goods are not consumers but producers. In 2019, just $18 \%$ of construction investment was spent on one-family homes in Germany. In such a case, the owner – together with at least an architect – face a small general contractor or even smaller specialty contractors on the market. This is definitely not a situation of David against Goliath, which often applies to the case of consumer goods.
Market power of the owner is even stronger in case of professional investors. When Airbus tenders for a new production facility, who is Goliath and who is David? This abnormality of market power set aside, consumers and producers who acquire construction goods do not differ from other consumers or producers in their behavior; they maximize utility or profit and must observe their budget constraint.
Another difference between most construction transactions and many consumer decisions is the degree of involvement. The consumer of a one-family home expresses a direct need and is highly, sometimes even extremely, involved. It’s an emotional purchase, investing not just money but hopes for a happy future – they don’t call it “building my dream house” for nothing. Investors satisfy a derived demand to fulfill their primary goals (production, service). There is little emotional involvement in the majority of procurement decisions, which makes establishing relations difficult (relationship contracting).
博弈论代考
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Tasks of the Owner
业主是负责规划和监督建设的实体。所有者可以自己或在他人的帮助下完成此操作。他们必须遵守所有规定并确保施工期间的安全。业主必须组织施工企业并通过起草合同确定市场条件。对于小型项目，建筑师为此支持业主；对于较大的项目，项目经理担任此角色。
所有者的最少参与包括以下任务：
- 制定最初的经营理念。
- 提供施工场地。
- 在银行的帮助下确保项目融资。
- 在建筑师和工程师的帮助下定义结构。
- 在建筑师和项目经理的帮助下获得建筑许可证。
- 在律师、工料测量师或项目经理的帮助下制定合同及其条件。
- 由合约决定市场交易的规则。
- 如有必要，使用业主的单方面权利在施工期间更改设计。
表 11.2 描述了传统采购方式的典型施工过程，包括三个阶段：设计、采购、施工（设计/投标/建造）。其他采购方法主要包括早期承包商参与、并行设计重叠施工、设计/建造合同以及设计/建造/运营合同。Greenhalgh 和 Squires (2011) 提供了关于此主题的更多信息。私人业主有绝对的自由裁量权来选择最适合他们目的的采购，这在经济上意味着他们可以最大化自己的效用。由于政府法规，公共所有者的选择可能有限。
招标方式也组织了建筑市场，业主再次在法律框架内拥有绝对的选择自由。如果业主想要尽可能激烈的竞争，那么公开招标是必经之路。在这种情况下，任何愿意的承包商都可以提交投标。如果业主想更严密地控制承包商的质量，那么业主会选择由手选数量的投标人（通常为 5-10 名）进行选择性招标。在某些情况下，业主可能认为最好只与一个投标人谈判合同。
有更多的方式来塑造市场。两个重要的考虑因素是合同的特殊性和规模。通过将项目授予总承包商，可以将项目捆绑在一份合同中，包括结构、装修工程和建筑服务。另一种选择是为特殊行业签订单独的合同。项目的规模通过要求债券对承包商提出财务要求，并增加了风险。因此，规模较小的承包商将被排除在被认为规模过大且风险过大的合同批次之外。
私人所有者在许多国家享有合同选择权。他们可以制定任何对他们有利的条件，只要他们不提出不道德的合同条件。他们能够以适合自己目的的方式转移权利、义务和风险。当然，也有像 FIDIC 制定的标准合同形式，寻求权利和责任的公平分配，但没有私人所有者受制于它们。在许多情况下，这对于公共所有者而言是不同的。
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Producers Buying Construction Goods
假设购买投资品的所有者使利润最大化似乎也很合理。现值分析是比较投资的绝佳工具。
建筑物和基础设施需要初始投资，并在其整个生命周期内提供持续服务。使用机会成本的概念，只有在所有备选方案中提供最佳回报的情况下，投资者才会购买建筑物。建筑产品是投资者的资产，他们需要这些资产来实现他们的商业目标——无论是在工厂生产消费品、在办公楼提供服务，还是作为公共产品提供交通设施。
我们发现了一个奇怪的事实，即大多数建筑产品的购买者不是消费者而是生产者。2019年，刚刚18%的建筑投资用于德国的单户住宅。在这种情况下，业主——至少还有一名建筑师——面临市场上的小型总承包商或更小的专业承包商。这绝对不是以弱胜强，以弱胜强的局面，这种情况经常发生在消费品的案例中。
在专业投资者的情况下，所有者的市场力量甚至更强。当空中客车招标新的生产设施时，谁是歌利亚，谁是大卫？撇开市场力量的这种异常，购买建筑产品的消费者和生产者在行为上与其他消费者或生产者没有区别；他们最大化效用或利润并且必须遵守他们的预算约束。
大多数建筑交易与许多消费者决策之间的另一个区别是参与程度。单户住宅的消费者表达了直接的需求，并且高度参与，有时甚至是极端参与。这是一次感性的购买，投资的不仅仅是金钱，还有对幸福未来的希望——他们不会白白称之为“建造我梦想中的房子”。投资者满足衍生需求以实现其主要目标（生产、服务）。大多数采购决策几乎没有情感参与，这使得建立关系变得困难（关系契约）。
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