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经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Profit Maximization in Monopolistic Markets
The problem of a monopolistic firm is quite complex. As the previous subchapter explained, it has to decide about brand management and product development, needs to develop pricing strategies, and has to take into account the political environment to protect and further its interests. In the following subchapter, I will reduce this complexity by focusing on the pricing aspect. Thus, the following analysis will assume that a firm has a monopoly in an already existing market with an established product. To understand optimal pricing policies, different cases have to be distinguished:
- The firm is not able to discriminate prices between customers; each customer buys at the same price. This is the standard model of monopoly theory. It will allow one to understand the important elements of an optimal pricing strategy better. We will first analyze the case of a one-product monopoly selling a good in one market. As an extension, we will then generalize this model to include so-called two-sided or multi-sided markets. In this case, the monopolist sells two or more goods or services in different markets, and the distinctive feature is the existence of interdependencies between the markets. This rather abstract sounding description is of great importance to understand the pricing logic of the digital economy.
However, the absence of price differentiation is not very realistic, as companies will usually try to differentiate prices between customers, so this basic model alone cannot give us a sufficiently accurate picture of monopoly behavior. Hence, the standard model alone cannot give one an appropriate picture of monopolistic behavior. The fact that price discrimination is an important tool of a firm’s policy will become clear during the analysis.
- Ihe firm is able to discriminate prices.
- Perfect (first degree) price discrimination is possible. This is a theoretical benchmark, where the firm is able to set individualistic prices for each customerr and can, in addition, discriminate by the quantity demandéd. This model helps one to understand the consequences of price discrimination by bringing it to its extreme. It is, however, not particularly realistic, because it assumes that firms have all the relevant information about their customers and that a legal environment exists that allows them to use this information to charge different customers different prices. The availability of “big data” and the development of sophisticated algorithms that analyze the behavior of individuals on the internet may, however, allow them to move closer in the direction of perfect price discrimination in the future.
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Conditions for the Existence of a Monopoly
Assume that one wants to bake a cake and needs flour. If one compares different retailers, one will find that each of them has different brands. In this sense, for example Migros is a monopolist for flour sold as “M-Budget Haushaltsmehl” (M-Budget flour), because Migros is the only supplier of this brand in the world. However, does this mean that Migros has a monopoly on “M-Budget Haushaltsmehl” in any meaningful economic sense? This question cannot be answered without further information. The reason is that two conditions have to be met in order to leverage the unique characteristics of a brand onto a monopoly position.
- The customers have to be able to differentiate the product from other products, and this ability to differentiate is reflected in the fact that alternative goods are not perceived as perfect substitutes. If consumers of flour are aware that there are different brands, but if this fact does not influence their decision which one to buy (because, for example, all they care for is the price of the flour), then flour is a homogeneous good sold by different suppliers, irrespective of the different brands. The fact that no other firm sells “M-Budget Haushaltsmehl” does not translate into the ability of Migros to raise prices above those of its competitors. However, if the customers consider the different brands to stand
- for non-homogeneous goods, then firms can use this willingness to differentiate between brands to charge brand-specific prices and optimal pricing becomes an integral aspect of the optimal firm policy. Indeed, flour seems to be a homogenous good to most customers and one may thus conjecture that the market for flour is, in fact, competitive. However, it is important to note that homogeneity of goods has nothing to do with the good’s physical characteristics or the brand name per se. It is the customers’ willingness and ability to differentiate between goods of different suppliers that is a necessary prerequisite for a monopoly.
- The willingness to differentiate can be assessed empirically by estimating the price and cross-price elasticities of demand. Intuitively, elasticities measure the percentage change of a variable that is caused by a one percent change in some other variable. If demand is ordinary and very price elastic, then it reacts strongly to price changes and there is no leeway to set prices actively. Similarly, the cross-price elasticity describes how demand changes, if the price of another good changes. If this elasticity is very large (in absolute terms) and the goods are close substitutes, then there is, again, little scope for price setting. An introduction to the concept of elasticities can be found in the mathematical appendix in Chap. 17.
- If the existence of a monopoly position depends on the customers’ ability and willingness to differentiate between products, then it must be an integral element of corporate communications and marketing to define and communicate relevant differences to other firms’ products or to create them in the first place. From this point of view, even an ordinary product like flour becomes interesting: In recent years, the market has displayed increasingly differentiated products. For example, wheat flour has been differentiated by cultivation method (organic vs. conventional), origin (local vs. from somewhere else), etc. This differentiation has the purpose of transforming a formerly homogeneous product into a set of heterogeneous products for which-if the efforts are successful-differences in the willingness to pay exist that can be exploited by the firms. Two other examples are denim jeans and coffee.
微观经济学代考
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Profit Maximization in Monopolistic Markets
垄断企业的问题相当复杂。正如前一节所解释的，它必须决定品牌管理和产品开发，需要制定定价策略，并且必须考虑政治环境以保护和促进其利益。在接下来的章节中，我将通过关注定价方面来降低这种复杂性。因此，下面的分析将假设一家公司在一个已经存在的市场上垄断了一个既定的产品。要了解最优定价政策，必须区分不同的情况：
- 公司不能在客户之间区分价格；每个顾客都以相同的价格购买。这就是垄断理论的标准模型。它将使人们更好地理解最佳定价策略的重要元素。我们将首先分析在一个市场上销售一种商品的单一产品垄断的情况。作为扩展，我们随后会将此模型推广到包括所谓的双边或多边市场。在这种情况下，垄断者在不同的市场上销售两种或两种以上的商品或服务，其显着特征是市场之间存在相互依存关系。这种听起来相当抽象的描述对于理解数字经济的定价逻辑具有重要意义。
然而，没有价格差异化是不太现实的，因为公司通常会尝试在客户之间区分价格，所以仅靠这个基本模型并不能给我们足够准确的垄断行为图画。因此，单凭标准模型无法正确描述垄断行为。价格歧视是企业政策的一个重要工具这一事实将在分析过程中变得清晰。
- 公司能够区分价格。
- 完全（一级）价格歧视是可能的。这是一个理论上的基准，公司能够为每个客户设定个性化价格，此外，还可以根据需求量进行区分。该模型通过将价格歧视发挥到极致，帮助人们理解价格歧视的后果。然而，这并不是特别现实，因为它假设公司拥有关于其客户的所有相关信息，并且存在允许他们使用这些信息向不同客户收取不同价格的法律环境。然而，“大数据”的可用性和分析个人在互联网上行为的复杂算法的发展可能会让他们在未来朝着完美价格歧视的方向迈进。
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Conditions for the Existence of a Monopoly
假设一个人想要烤蛋糕并且需要面粉。如果比较不同的零售商，就会发现每个零售商都有不同的品牌。从这个意义上说，例如，Migros 垄断了以“M-Budget Haushaltsmehl”（M-Budget 面粉）销售的面粉，因为 Migros 是该品牌在世界上的唯一供应商。然而，这是否意味着 Migros 在任何有意义的经济意义上垄断了“M-Budget Haushaltsmehl”？没有进一步的信息无法回答这个问题。原因是必须满足两个条件，才能利用品牌的独特特征取得垄断地位。
- 客户必须能够将产品与其他产品区分开来，这种区分能力反映在替代商品不被视为完美替代品这一事实。如果面粉的消费者知道有不同的品牌，但如果这一事实不影响他们购买哪个品牌的决定（因为，例如，他们只关心面粉的价格），那么面粉就是一种同质商品由不同的供应商提供，与不同的品牌无关。没有其他公司销售“M-Budget Haushaltsmehl”这一事实并不意味着 Migros 有能力将价格提高到高于其竞争对手的水平。但是，如果客户考虑到不同品牌的立场
- 对于非同质商品，那么企业可以利用这种意愿来区分品牌以收取特定品牌的价格，最优定价成为最优企业政策的一个组成部分。事实上，面粉对大多数顾客来说似乎是一种同质商品，因此可以推测面粉市场实际上是竞争性的。但需要注意的是，商品的同质性与商品的物理特性或品牌名称本身无关。顾客区分不同供应商的商品的意愿和能力是垄断的必要前提。
- 差异化意愿可以通过估计需求的价格和交叉价格弹性来根据经验进行评估。直观地说，弹性衡量的是一个变量的百分比变化是由其他变量的 1% 变化引起的。如果需求是普通的，而且价格弹性很大，那么它对价格变化的反应强烈，就没有主动定价的余地。同样，交叉价格弹性描述了如果另一种商品的价格发生变化，需求如何变化。如果这种弹性非常大（绝对值）并且商品是相近的替代品，那么价格设定的余地也很小。弹性概念的介绍可以在第 1 章的数学附录中找到。17.
- 如果垄断地位的存在取决于客户区分产品的能力和意愿，那么定义和传达与其他公司产品的相关差异或首先创造这些差异必须成为企业传播和营销的一个组成部分地方。从这个角度来看，即使是面粉这样的普通产品也变得有趣起来：近年来，市场上展示的产品差异化程度越来越高。例如，小麦粉已通过栽培方法（有机与传统）、产地（本地与其他地方）等进行区分。这种区分的目的是将以前的同质产品转变为一组异质产品，其中 -如果这些努力是成功的——支付意愿的差异就存在，可以被公司利用。
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