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经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Environmental Externalities
The metaphor is so obvious. Easter Island isolated in the Pacific Ocean-once the island got into trouble, there was no way they could get free. There was no other people from whom they could get help. In the same way that we on Planet Earth, if we ruin our own [world], we won’t be able to get help. (Jared Diamond, 2005)
Oil spills that waste beautiful beaches and wilderness areas are only the tip of the iceberg of environmental externalities. The following are some examples of environmental externalities in production that lead to social costs that are not internalized by market prices. Unregulated air pollution from burning fossil fuels becomes a problem, if no market for pollutants exists. Anthropogenic climate change, as a consequence of greenhouse gas emissions, involves future generations. Negative effects of industrial animal farming include, for example, the overuse of antibiotics that results in bacterial resistance and the contamination of the environment with animal waste. Another problem is the cost of storing nuclear waste from nuclear plants for very long periods of time.
There is a broad consensus among scientists that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history. In 2007, the German Federal Environment Minister acknowledged that up to $30 \%$ of all species would be extinct by 2010 . The Living Planet Report (World Wildlife Fund, 2014) comes to the conclusion that “the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago.” If one follows the scientific consensus and assumes that part of the loss in biodiversity is a consequence of the economic system, the question is whether this loss is a result of externalities. Is it possible that mass extinction of species can be Pareto-efficient? This is a tough question, because it requires information about the role of biodiversity in supporting human life on this planet and it relies on assumption about the way humans value biodiversity per se. If one starts with the conservative assumption that biodiversity has only instrumental value in supporting human life and if one admits that intergenerational externalities exist, because current generations do not adequately take the interests of future ones into consideration, then one can make a case for the existence of an externality. This is if one assumes that a more diverse biosphere is more likely to support human life than an impoverished one. This latter conjecture, however, is built on deep uncertainty of the complex role of the biosphere in supporting human life. The deeper problem is that the concept of Pareto efficiency, as seen before, is blind with respect to the distribution of gains from trade, and, more generally, economic welfare. A policy where the present generation has a big “party” and uses up most of the natural resources, leaving a devastated planet where future generations scrap along at the subsistence level, is Pareto-efficient as long as there is no alternative policy to make future generations better off without harming the present ones.
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Morality and Corporate Social Responsibility
In the realistic case that the institutional structure of a state is imperfect, in the sense that it does not always provide incentives for (Pareto-)efficient behavior, the question is how the people within society do or should deal with these inefficiencies. An example of this is when property rights are imperfectly enforced because of high transaction costs. The better part of everyday transactions is, for example, formally but not materially protected by property rights, because it would be too costly to enforce them. If a customer buys a bottle of orange juice at a kiosk and the retail clerk refuses to give back the change, the opportunity costs of calling the police, verifying the tort (which is difficult, if the retail clerk refuses to confess), etc. are likely prohibitive. Alternatively, on that subject, it is equally unlikely that the retail clerk can do much to prevent the customer from saying thank you and walking away with the bottle of juice without paying for it. Property rights cannot explain the fact that the overwhelming number of these transactions take place smoothly and efficiently.
There must be other mechanisms at work, and I will briefly discuss two of them. First, the interaction may not be singular but rather repeated and, if there is always a probability that the customer and the retail clerk will meet again in the future, it would be rather shortsighted to sacrifice future trades for the (relatively small) present gain. Repeated interactions can, therefore, be used to build up a reputation as a reliable trading partner, which can stabilize transactions, even in situations where formal property rights cannot be protected by the state. Second, the trading partner may have an intrinsic motivation to play fair. There is broad, scientific consensus by now that individuals are, for good evolutionary reasons, not always selfish, but have the ability and also (sometimes) the desire to act morally. The marginal willingness to keep one’s promises, to pay one’s bills, etc., however, depends very much on the perception of the situational context. If people have the feeling that-by and large-society gives everyone his or her fair share, their willingness to cooperate, to act fairly and to voluntarily follow certain moral standards of behavior is much larger than in a situation that is considered unfair from the beginning. Social norms and the intrinsic desire to act morally are then substitutes for formal property-rights enforcement. The more porous the system of property-rights enforcement is, the more important moral behavior becomes.
微观经济学代考
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Environmental Externalities
这个比喻太明显了。孤立在太平洋上的复活节岛——一旦岛上出事，他们就无路可逃。他们没有其他人可以得到帮助。就像我们在地球上一样，如果我们毁了自己的[世界]，我们将无法获得帮助。（贾里德戴蒙德，2005 年）
浪费美丽海滩和荒野地区的石油泄漏只是环境外部性的冰山一角。以下是生产中环境外部性的一些示例，这些示例导致社会成本未被市场价格内部化。如果不存在污染物市场，燃烧化石燃料造成的不受管制的空气污染就会成为一个问题。温室气体排放导致的人为气候变化涉及子孙后代。工业化畜牧业的负面影响包括，例如，过度使用抗生素导致细菌产生耐药性，以及动物粪便污染环境。另一个问题是长期储存核电站核废料的成本。
科学家们普遍认为，现在物种灭绝的速度比人类历史上任何时候都要快。2007 年，德国联邦环境部长承认，直到30%到 2010 年，所有物种都将灭绝。地球生命力报告（世界野生动物基金会，2014 年）得出的结论是，“全球哺乳动物、鸟类、爬行动物、两栖动物和鱼类的数量平均只有 40 年前的一半左右。” 如果人们遵循科学共识并假设生物多样性损失的一部分是经济体系的结果，那么问题是这种损失是否是外部性的结果。物种大规模灭绝是否可能具有帕累托效率？这是一个棘手的问题，因为它需要有关生物多样性在支持地球上人类生活方面的作用的信息，并且它依赖于对人类重视生物多样性本身的方式的假设。如果从保守的假设开始，即生物多样性在支持人类生活方面仅具有工具价值，如果承认存在代际外部性，因为当代人没有充分考虑后代人的利益，那么就可以证明存在的外部性。这是假设一个更多样化的生物圈比一个贫困的生物圈更有可能支持人类生活。然而，后一种猜想是建立在生物圈在支持人类生活方面的复杂作用的深刻不确定性之上的。更深层次的问题是，如前所述，帕累托效率的概念在贸易收益分配以及更普遍的经济福利方面是盲目的。
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Morality and Corporate Social Responsibility
在一个国家的制度结构不完善的现实情况下，从某种意义上说，它并不总是为（帕累托）有效行为提供激励，问题是社会中的人们如何或应该如何应对这些低效率。这方面的一个例子是，由于交易成本高，产权执行不完善。例如，日常交易的大部分在形式上但并未在物质上受到财产权的保护，因为执行它们的成本太高。如果顾客在售货亭买了一瓶橙汁，而店员拒绝退还零钱，那么报警的机会成本、核实侵权行为（这很困难，如果店员拒绝供认）等。可能令人望而却步。或者，关于那个主题，同样，零售店员也不太可能阻止顾客说声谢谢并在不付钱的情况下拿走那瓶果汁。产权无法解释绝大多数这些交易顺利有效地进行的事实。
肯定还有其他机制在起作用，我将简要讨论其中的两个。首先，交互可能不是单一的，而是重复的，如果客户和零售店员总是有可能在未来再次见面，那么为了（相对较小的）当前收益而牺牲未来交易将是相当短视的. 因此，重复的互动可以用来建立可靠贸易伙伴的声誉，这可以稳定交易，即使在国家无法保护正式产权的情况下也是如此。其次，贸易伙伴可能有公平竞争的内在动机。现在有广泛的科学共识，即出于良好的进化原因，个人并不总是自私的，但有能力并且（有时）有道德行为的愿望。然而，遵守承诺、支付账单等的边际意愿在很大程度上取决于对情境的感知。如果人们觉得整个社会给予每个人公平的份额，那么他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些行为道德标准的意愿要比在被认为不公平的情况下大得多开始。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望于是取代了正式的产权执法。产权执法制度漏洞越多，道德行为就越重要。与从一开始就被认为不公平的情况相比，他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些道德行为标准的意愿要大得多。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望于是取代了正式的产权执法。产权执法制度漏洞越多，道德行为就越重要。与从一开始就被认为不公平的情况相比，他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些道德行为标准的意愿要大得多。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望于是取代了正式的产权执法。产权执法制度漏洞越多，道德行为就越重要。
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