经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON40010

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经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Definition of Game Trees

Figure $4.1$ shows an example of a game tree. We always draw trees downwards, with the starting node, called the root, at the top. (Conventions on drawing game trees vary. Sometimes trees are drawn from the bottom upwards, sometimes from left to right, and sometimes with the root at the center with edges in any direction.)

The nodes of the tree denote states of play (which have been called “positions” in the combinatorial games considered in Chapter 1). Nodes are connected by lines, called edges. An edge from a node $u$ to a child node $v$ (where $v$ is drawn below $u$ ) indicates a possible move in the game. This may be a move of a “personal” player, for example move $X$ of player $\mathrm{I}$ in Figure 4.1. Then $u$ is also called a decision node. Alternatively, $u$ is a chance node, like the node $u$ that follows move $b$ of player II in Figure 4.1. We draw decision nodes as small filled circles and chance nodes as squares. After a chance noule $u$, the next nekle $n$ is determined by a random choice made with the probability associated with the edge that leads from $u$ to $v$. In Figure 4.1, these probabilities are $\frac{1}{3}$ for the left move and $\frac{2}{3}$ for the right move.
At a terminal node or leaf of the game tree, every player gets a payoff. In Figure 4.1, leaves are not explicitly drawn, but the payoffs given instead, with the top payoff to player I and the bottom payoff to player II.

It does not matter how the tree is drawn, only how the nodes are connected by edges, as summarized in the background material on directed graphs and trees. The following is the formal definition of a game tree.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Backward Induction

Which moves should the players choose in a game tree? “Optimal” play should maximize a player’s payoff. This can be decided irrespective of other players’ actions when the player is the last player to move. In the game in Figure 4.3(a), player II maximizes her payoff by move $r$. Going backward in time, player I makes his move $T$ or $B$ at the root of the game tree, where he will receive either 1 or 2 , assuming the described future behavior of player II. Consequently, he will choose $B$, and play ends with payoff 2 to each player. These chosen moves are shown in Figure 4.3(b) with arrows on the edges; similar to the boxes that we put around best-response payoffs in a strategic-form game, this is additional information to help the analysis of the game and not part of the game specification.

This process is called backward induction: Starting with the decision nodes closest to the leaves, a player’s move is chosen that maximizes that player’s payoff at the node. In general, a move is chosen in this way for each decision node provided all subsequent moves have already been decided. Eventually, this will determine a move for every decision node, and hence for the entire game.The move selected by backward induction is not necessarily unique, if there is more than one move that gives maximal payoff to the player. This may influence the choice of moves earlier in the tree. In the game in Figure 4.4, backward induction chooses either move $b$ or move $c$ for player II, both of which give her payoff 5 (which is an expected payoff for move $b$ in the original game in Figure 4.1) that exceeds her payoff 4 for move $a$. At the rightmost node, player I chooses $Q$. This determines the preceding move $d$ by player II which gives her the higher payoff 3 as opposed to 2 (via move Q). In turn, this means that player I, when choosing between $X, Y$, or $Z$ at the root of the game tree, will get payoff 2 for $Y$ and payoff 1 for $\mathrm{Z}$. The payoff when he chooses $X$ depends on the choice of player II: if that is $b$, then player I gets 2, and he can choose either $X$ or $Y$, both of which give him maximal payoff 2. These choices are shown with white arrows in Figure 4.4. If player II chooses $c$, however, then the payoff to player $\mathrm{I}$ is 4 when choosing $X$, so this is the unique optimal move.

To summarize, the possible combinations of moves that can arise in Figure $4.1$ by backward induction are, by listing the moves for each player: $(X Q, b d),(X Q, c d)$, and $(Y Q, b d)$. Note that $Q$ and $d$ are always chosen, but that $Y$ can only be chosen in combination with the move $b$ by player II.

We do not try to argue that player II “should not” choose $b$ because of the “risk” that player I might choose $Y$. This would be a “refinement” of backward induction that we do not pursue.

The moves determined by backward induction are therefore, in general, not unique, and possibly interdependent.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON40010

博弈论代考

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Definition of Game Trees

数字4.1展示了一个博弈树的例子。我们总是向下绘制树,起始节点(称为根)位于顶部。(绘制游戏树的惯例各不相同。有时树是从下往上画的,有时是从左到右画的,有时树的根在中心,边缘在任何方向。)

树的节点表示游戏状态(在第 1 章考虑的组合游戏中被称为“位置”)。节点由称为边的线连接。来自节点的边在到子节点在(在哪里在画在下面在) 表示游戏中可能的一步。这可能是“个人”玩家的一步棋,例如棋步X玩家的我在图 4.1 中。然后在也称为决策节点。或者,在是一个机会节点,就像节点在跟随移动b图 4.1 中的玩家 II。我们将决策节点绘制为小实心圆圈,将机会节点绘制为正方形。一次机会之后在, 下一个膝盖n由随机选择决定,该选择的概率与从在至在. 在图 4.1 中,这些概率是13向左移动和23为了正确的举动。
在博弈树的终端节点或叶子上,每个玩家都会获得收益。在图 4.1 中,没有明确画出叶子,而是给出了收益,玩家 I 获得最高收益,玩家 II 获得最低收益。

树的绘制方式并不重要,重要的是节点如何通过边连接,如有向图和树的背景材料中所总结的那样。以下是博弈树的正式定义。

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Backward Induction

玩家应该在博弈树中选择哪些着法?“最佳”玩法应该使玩家的收益最大化。当该玩家是最后移动的玩家时,这可以不考虑其他玩家的动作来决定。在图 4.3(a) 的博弈中,局中人 II 通过移动最大化她的收益r. 时光倒流,玩家 I 采取行动吨或者乙在游戏树的根部,他将收到 1 或 2 ,假设玩家 II 描述的未来行为。因此,他会选择乙,并且游戏结束时每位玩家的收益为 2。这些选择的移动如图 4.3(b) 所示,边上有箭头;类似于我们在战略形式游戏中放置最佳响应收益的方框,这是有助于分析游戏的附加信息,而不是游戏规范的一部分。

这个过程称为逆向归纳:从最接近叶子的决策节点开始,选择玩家的移动以最大化该玩家在该节点的收益。通常,如果所有后续移动都已确定,则以这种方式为每个决策节点选择移动。最终,这将为每个决策节点确定一个移动,并因此为整个游戏确定一个移动。如果有不止一个移动给玩家带来最大收益,则反向归纳选择的移动不一定是唯一的。这可能会影响树中较早移动的选择。在图 4.4 的博弈中,向后归纳选择任一着法b或移动C对于玩家 II,两者都给她带来收益 5(这是移动的预期收益b在图 4.1 中的原始博弈中)超过她移动的收益 4一个. 在最右边的节点,我选择的玩家问. 这决定了前面的动作d玩家 II 给了她更高的回报 3 而不是 2(通过移动 Q)。反过来,这意味着玩家 I 在选择X,是, 或者从在博弈树的根部,将获得收益 2是和收益 1从. 他选择时的回报X取决于玩家 II 的选择:如果是b,然后玩家 I 得到 2,他可以选择X或者是,这两个都给他最大的收益 2。这些选择在图 4.4 中用白色箭头显示。如果玩家 II 选择C,然而,玩家的收益我选择时为4X,所以这是唯一的最优着法。

总而言之,图中可能出现的移动组合4.1通过向后归纳,列出每个玩家的动作:(X问,bd),(X问,Cd), 和(是问,bd). 注意问和d总是被选中,但是是只能结合招式选择b由玩家 II。

我们不试图争辩说玩家 II“不应该”选择b因为我可能会选择那个球员的“风险”是. 这将是我们不追求的反向归纳的“改进”。

因此,由反向归纳决定的移动通常不是唯一的,并且可能是相互依赖的。

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考

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