经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON102

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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Financing the transition by issuing debt

Now let’s think about how things would change if the transition is financed by issuing debt. (Maybe that is a politically more palatable option!) In this case, for the current young there are no taxes, and debt is another asset that they can purchase:
$$
c_{1 t}+s_t+d+g_{\text {debt }}=w_t,
$$
so consumption in old age can be
$$
c_{2 t+1}=\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) s_t+\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) d+\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) g_{\text {debt }} .
$$
Following the same logic as before, private savings are
$$
s_t=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-d-g_{\text {debt }} .
$$
How about aggregate savings? Note that contributions to the fully funded system $d$, work as savings from an aggregate perspective: they are available to finance the accumulation of capital. However, the amount of debt issued by the government is in fact not used for capital accumulation, but rather for consumption, because it is a transfer to the old. As such, aggregate savings are given by
$$
s_t^{a g g}=s_t+d=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-g_{\text {debt }}=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-d,
$$
where in the last step we use the fact that (under no population growth) the government issues $g_{\text {debt }}=d$ of debt to pay benefits to the current old.

Let’s see how this compares to the pay-as-you-go savings. Rewriting equation (9.22) which shows the savings rate in a pay-as-you-go system
$$
s_t^{a g g}=s_t=\left(\frac{1}{2+\rho}\right) w_t-d \frac{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)+(1+\rho)}{(2+\rho)\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)} .
$$
Notice that if
$$
\frac{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)+(1+\rho)}{(2+\rho)\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)}<1,
$$ then in this case savings is even lower than in the pay-as-you-go system, which happens because the government now pays $r$ on its debt, which in this case is higher than $n$.

Another way to see this is if the government imposed a fully funded system but then makes the pension firms purchase government debt that is used for the current old (i.e. for consumption). There is no way this type of reform can increase the capital stock.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Do people save enough

The above setup assumes that agents optimise their savings to maximise intertemporal utility, with or without pensions. However, there are several reasons why this may not be the case. We will get into more detail in Chapters 11 and 12, but it is worth going over some of the possibilities here, in the context of pensions.

First and foremost, people may believe that if they don’t save, the government will step in and bail them out. If you believe that, why would you save? This time inconsistency feature (the government may tell you to save but, if you don’t, will feel tempted to help you out) may lead to suboptimal savings.

Even in the case of the U.S., where these considerations may not be so relevant, there has been ample discussion about the intensity with which people save for retirement. On the one hand, Scholz et al. (2006) shows that the accumulation of assets of people roughly matches the life cycle hypothesis (which we will see in detail in Chapter 11); on the other hand, there is evidence that suggests that consumption levels drop upon retirement (Bernheim et al. 2001), which is inconsistent with optimal savings. One possible reconciliation of these two facts is given by including the dimension of what type of assets people use for savings. Beshears et al. (2018) show that people save sizable amounts, but they tend to save in illiquid assets. Illiquid assets may provide unusually high returns (for example, owning your house provides steady rental income). Kaplan et al. (2014) estimate that housing services provides an after-tax risk adjusted rate of return of close to $8 \%$. In such a world agents hold a large share of illiquid assets but consumption tracks income while they use some potentially expensive mechanisms to partially smooth consumption.

Present bias has also been mentioned as a reason why people tend to save less than the optimal level. In this case, imposing a pension system that forces people to save may be a ex ante optimal commitment device. We will discuss present bias in detail in Chapter 12.

Finally, recent research on savings for retirement has delivered some interesting new ideas and policy suggestions. One typical way of saving in the U.S. is the $401 \mathrm{~K}$ programs, where you save with the benefit of a tax deferral: your income is taxed when withdrawing the funds. These programs are typically arranged with your employer, which matches the contributions with a vesting period to entice labour stability. Yet it has been found that matching is a fairly inefficient way to stimulate savings. Madrian (2013) finds that a matching contribution of $25 \%$ increases savings by $5 \%$. In contrast default setting seems, to have a much stronger effect. Madrian and Shea (2001) show that when a company shifted from a default where, unless the worker would opt out, it would start contributing $3 \%$ of its salary to a $401 \mathrm{~K}$ program, they found that fifteen months after the change, $85 \%$ of the workers participated, and $65 \%$ contributed $3 \%$ of their wages. This compared with only $49 \%$ participation for those workers hired previously in which only $4 \%$ contributed $3 \%$. In short, default standards may be powerful (and cheap) tools for incentivizing savings.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON102

经济代写|宏观经济学代写宏观经济学代考|通过发行债务为转型融资


现在让我们思考一下,如果通过发行债券来为过渡提供资金,情况会发生怎样的变化。(也许这是一个政治上更可取的选择!)在这种情况下,目前的年轻人没有税收,债务是他们可以购买的另一种资产:
$$
c_{1 t}+s_t+d+g_{\text {debt }}=w_t,
$$
所以老年消费可以
$$
c_{2 t+1}=\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) s_t+\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) d+\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) g_{\text {debt }} .
$$
按照之前的逻辑,私人储蓄
$$
s_t=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-d-g_{\text {debt }} .
$$
那么总储蓄呢?请注意,向资金充足的系统$d$提供的捐款从总额的角度看是储蓄:它们可用于资助资本的积累。然而,政府发行的债务数额实际上不是用于资本积累,而是用于消费,因为这是向老年人的转移。因此,总储蓄由
$$
s_t^{a g g}=s_t+d=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-g_{\text {debt }}=\frac{w_t}{(2+\rho)}-d,
$$
给出,在最后一步中,我们使用的事实是(在没有人口增长的情况下)政府发行$g_{\text {debt }}=d$的债务来支付当前老年人的福利


让我们看看这与现收现付储蓄的比较情况。重写公式(9.22),它显示了现收现付系统的储蓄率
$$
s_t^{a g g}=s_t=\left(\frac{1}{2+\rho}\right) w_t-d \frac{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)+(1+\rho)}{(2+\rho)\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)} .
$$
注意,如果
$$
\frac{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)+(1+\rho)}{(2+\rho)\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)}<1,
$$,那么在这种情况下,储蓄甚至低于现收现付系统,这是因为政府现在支付$r$的债务,在这种情况下高于$n$


另一种看待这一点的方式是,政府实施了一个资金充足的系统,但随后让养老金公司购买政府债务,用于当前老年人(即用于消费)。这种改革是不可能增加资本存量的

经济代写|宏观经济学代写宏观经济学代考|人们是否储蓄足够


上面的设置假设代理人优化他们的储蓄以最大化跨期效用,无论是否有养老金。然而,有几个原因可能导致情况并非如此。我们将在第11章和第12章详细讨论,但在养老金的背景下,有必要在这里讨论一些可能性


首先,人们可能认为,如果他们不储蓄,政府就会介入并救助他们。如果你相信这一点,你为什么要存钱?这个时间不一致的特性(政府可能会告诉你存钱,但如果你不存钱,它会忍不住帮你)可能会导致次优储蓄


即使在这些考虑可能不太相关的美国,关于人们为退休储蓄的强度也有大量的讨论。一方面,Scholz et al.(2006)表明,人们的资产积累大致符合生命周期假设(我们将在第11章详细介绍);另一方面,有证据表明,消费水平在退休后下降(Bernheim et al. 2001),这与最优储蓄不一致。把人们用于储蓄的资产类型的维度包括进来,就给出了这两个事实的一个可能的调和。Beshears等人(2018)表明,人们储蓄的数额相当大,但他们倾向于储蓄在非流动性资产。非流动性资产可能会提供异常高的回报(例如,拥有你的房子可以提供稳定的租金收入)。Kaplan等人(2014)估计,住房服务提供的税后风险调整回报率接近$8 \%$。在这样一个世界里,代理人持有很大一部分非流动性资产,但消费跟踪收入,同时他们使用一些可能昂贵的机制部分平滑消费


现值偏差也被认为是人们倾向于低于最佳储蓄水平的一个原因。在这种情况下,推行一种迫使人们储蓄的养老金制度可能是一种预先的最佳承诺手段。我们将在第12章详细讨论目前的偏见


最后,最近关于退休储蓄的研究提出了一些有趣的新想法和政策建议。在美国,一种典型的储蓄方式是$401 \mathrm{~K}$计划,在这个计划中,你的储蓄受益于税收延期:你的收入在提取资金时被征税。这些项目通常是与你的雇主安排的,雇主会将供款与授予期相匹配,以吸引劳动力的稳定性。然而,人们发现,配对是一种相当低效的刺激储蓄的方式。Madrian(2013)发现,$25 \%$的相应贡献增加了$5 \%$的储蓄。相比之下,默认设置似乎有更强的效果。Madrian和Shea(2001)表明,当一个公司从默认(除非员工选择退出)转变为$401 \mathrm{~K}$项目时,它将开始贡献$3 \%$的工资,他们发现在改变后的15个月,$85 \%$的员工参与了,$65 \%$贡献了$3 \%$的工资。相比之下,以前雇佣的工人只有$49 \%$参与其中,只有$4 \%$贡献了$3 \%$。简而言之,默认标准可能是激励节约的强大(且廉价)工具

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考

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