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经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Pricing
There are $F$ multi-product firms operating in $M$ national markets. In each market $m$ a firm $f$ sells a subset, $F_{f m}$ of the $J_m$ car models sold in the market $m$. The sales of a typical car $j$ in market $m, q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$ are a function of the consumer price vector in market $m, p_m=\left(p_{1 m}, \ldots, p_{j_m m}\right)$ and not of the price vectors in the other markets. ${ }^{11}$ This is based on the assumption of prohibitive arbitrage costs to consumers. Prices are in a common currency, e.g., the ECU. Because a single cross section (for the year 1990) is used, it is not possible to take into account exchange rate fluctuations over time and their possible incomplete pass-through to consumers, as in, e.g., Knetter (1993). The total cost of producing a typical car $j, C_j=\left(q_{j 1}\left(p_1\right), \ldots, q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)\right)$, is a function of the sales of $\operatorname{car} j$ in the $M$ markets. Firm $f$ ‘s profit is
$$
\Pi_f=\sum_{m=1}^M \sum_{j \in F_{j m}} p_{j m}^w q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)-\sum_{j \in F_{f m}} C_j\left(q_{j 1}\left(p_1\right), \ldots, q_{j M}\left(p_M\right)\right)
$$
where $p_{j m}^w$ is the wholesale price of a car $j$ in market $m$ received by the firm. The firm’s wholesale price, $p_{j m}^w$, may differ from the consumer price, $p_{j m}$, because of value-added taxes imposed by the governments or because of dealer markups. The specific relation-ship between $p_{j m}^w$ and $p_{j m}$ is modelled as an exogenous relationship. The possible strategic interdependence between firms, dealers, and governments is thus ignored, conforming to most previous empirical studies. ${ }^{12}$ The focus is instead on the interdependence among firms themselves.
Firms set the prices of their differentiated products to maximize profit. The assumption of price-setting behaviour in the car market is common and consistent with industry wisdom, see, e.g., the discussion of pricing practices by the UK Monopolies and Mergers Commission Report (1992). ${ }^{13}$ Some firms are not subject to an import quota while other firms are. A firm that is not subject to an import quota simply chooses a wholesale price, $p_{j m}^w$, for every car it markets to maximize its profit, given the prices set by its competitors. A firm that is subject to an import quota solves a constrained profit-maximization problem. In some markets (e.g., in Italy) the constraint specifies that the firm’s demand cannot exceed a certain absolute level $D_{f m}$, i.e., $D_{f m} \geq \sum_{j \in F_{f m}} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$. In other markets (e.g., in France, Germany and the United Kingdom) the constraint specifies that the firm’s demand cannot exceed a certain percentage of total market demand $d_{f m}$, i.e., $d_{f m} \geq \sum_{i \in F_{f m}} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right) / \sum_{j=1}^{J_m} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$
经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Functional forms
I discuss the functional form of both components of the pricing equation, marginal cost and markup, in turn. An introductory remark applies. I restrict most parameters to be the same across markets, except for the ‘fixed effects’ that allow the constants to vary across markets. These cross-market restrictions make it possible to pool the data, and they facilitate the estimation.
The functional form of the marginal cost in equation (4) is
$$
\frac{\partial C_j}{\partial q_{j m}}=\exp \left(w_{j m} \gamma_w+\gamma_q \ln Q_j+\omega_m+\omega_{j m}\right)
$$
where $w_{j m}$ is a vector of physical characteristics of car $j$ in market $m$. The variable $Q_j=\sum_{m+1}^M q_{j m}$ the total (world) sales of a car $j$ in all $M$ markets, indicates whether marginal costs are increasing, constant, or decreasing in outputs. ${ }^{15}$ The error term, $\omega_{j m}$ has the economic interpretation of capturing unobserved (to the econometrician) car characteristics that influence the marginal cost of car $j$ in market $m$. Similarly, the fixed effect $\omega_m$ captures unobserved characteristics that systematically influence the marginal cost of all cars operating in market $m$. This may follow from, for example, unobserved national differences in cost-increasing regulations, such as the required use of catalytic converters in Germany. Note that when markups approach zero due to perfect competition, and when $\gamma_q=0$, the pricing equation reduces to the simple hedonic specification (1).
The specific relationship between the firm’s wholesale price, $p_{j m}^w$ and the consumer (list) price, $p_{j m}$, takes the following functional form:
$$
p_{j m}^w=p_{j m} /\left[\left(1+t_m\right)\left(1+\tau_m\right)\right]
$$
i.e., the firm’s wholesale price, $p_{j m}^w$ is a fraction of the consumer (list) price, $p_{j m}$. The variable $t_m$ captures the observable percentage deviations of $p_{j m}^w$ from $p_{j m}$, such as value-added taxes. ${ }^{16}$ The variable $\tau_m$ is a fixed effect capturing the unobservable (to the econometrician), market-average percentage deviations of $p_{j m}^w$ from $p_{j m}$, in particular dealer markups. ${ }^{17}$ The interpretation of $\tau_m$ as unobserved market-specific dealer markups will of ten be used below. It is consistent with a standard practice by the car manufacturers in the EC. Indeed, as discussed in Monopolies and Mergers Commission (1992), the dealer markups are usually calculated as a percentage on the pretax consumer list price $p_{j m} /\left(1+t_m\right)$.

经济代写|产业经济学代写工业经济代考|定价
.定价 .经济代写|
有$F$多产品公司在$M$个国家市场经营。在每个市场$m$一家公司$f$销售一个子集,$F_{f m}$的$J_m$车型$m$在市场上销售。一辆典型汽车$j$在$m, q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$市场上的销量是$m, p_m=\left(p_{1 m}, \ldots, p_{j_m m}\right)$市场上消费者价格向量的函数,而不是其他市场上价格向量的函数。${ }^{11}$这是基于消费者的套利成本过高的假设。价格采用通用货币,例如欧洲货币单位。由于使用的是单一截面(1990年),因此不可能考虑到汇率随时间的波动及其可能不完全转嫁给消费者的情况,如Knetter(1993年)。生产一辆典型汽车$j, C_j=\left(q_{j 1}\left(p_1\right), \ldots, q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)\right)$的总成本是$\operatorname{car} j$在$M$市场上销售额的函数。公司$f$的利润
$$
\Pi_f=\sum_{m=1}^M \sum_{j \in F_{j m}} p_{j m}^w q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)-\sum_{j \in F_{f m}} C_j\left(q_{j 1}\left(p_1\right), \ldots, q_{j M}\left(p_M\right)\right)
$$
,其中$p_{j m}^w$是该公司在$m$市场上收到的汽车$j$的批发价。由于政府征收的增值税或经销商加价,该公司的批发价格$p_{j m}^w$可能与消费者价格$p_{j m}$不同。$p_{j m}^w$和$p_{j m}$之间的特定关系被建模为外生关系。因此,公司、交易商和政府之间可能的战略相互依赖被忽略了,这与以往的大多数实证研究一致。${ }^{12}$相反,重点是企业之间的相互依赖
公司为其差异化产品设定价格以使利润最大化。汽车市场定价行为的假设是普遍的,与行业智慧一致,参见英国垄断和合并委员会报告(1992)对定价实践的讨论。${ }^{13}$一些公司不受进口配额限制,而另一些公司则受进口配额限制。一个不受进口配额限制的公司只是为其销售的每一辆汽车选择一个批发价格$p_{j m}^w$,以使其利润最大化,考虑到竞争对手设定的价格。受进口配额限制的企业解决的是受约束的利润最大化问题。在某些市场(例如意大利),限制规定公司的需求不能超过一定的绝对水平$D_{f m}$,即$D_{f m} \geq \sum_{j \in F_{f m}} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$。在其他市场(例如法国、德国和联合王国),该限制规定公司的需求不能超过市场总需求的一定百分比$d_{f m}$,即$d_{f m} \geq \sum_{i \in F_{f m}} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right) / \sum_{j=1}^{J_m} q_{j m}\left(p_m\right)$
经济代写|产业经济学代写工业经济学代考|功能形式
.
我依次讨论了定价方程的两个组成部分,边际成本和加价的函数形式。有一个介绍性的说明。除了“固定效应”(fixed effect),我将大多数参数限制为在不同市场中相同。这些跨市场的限制使得集合数据成为可能,它们促进了估计。式(4)中边际成本的函数形式为
$$
\frac{\partial C_j}{\partial q_{j m}}=\exp \left(w_{j m} \gamma_w+\gamma_q \ln Q_j+\omega_m+\omega_{j m}\right)
$$
,其中$w_{j m}$是市场$m$中汽车$j$的物理特性向量。变量$Q_j=\sum_{m+1}^M q_{j m}$表示一辆车在所有$M$市场$j$的总(世界)销量,表示边际成本在产出中是增加、不变还是减少。${ }^{15}$误差项,$\omega_{j m}$有捕捉未观察到的(对计量经济学家)汽车特征的经济学解释,影响汽车$j$在市场$m$的边际成本。同样,固定效应$\omega_m$捕捉了未观察到的特征,这些特征系统地影响了$m$市场上所有汽车的边际成本。这可能是由于,例如,在增加费用的条例方面未被观察到的国家差异,例如德国要求使用催化转换器。请注意,当由于完全竞争而加成接近零时,当$\gamma_q=0$时,定价方程简化为简单的享乐规范(1)。
公司的批发价格$p_{j m}^w$和消费者(清单)价格$p_{j m}$之间的具体关系采用以下函数形式:
$$
p_{j m}^w=p_{j m} /\left[\left(1+t_m\right)\left(1+\tau_m\right)\right]
$$
即,该公司的批发价格$p_{j m}^w$是消费者(清单)价格$p_{j m}$的一个零头。变量$t_m$捕获$p_{j m}^w$与$p_{j m}$的可观察偏差百分比,例如增值税。${ }^{16}$变量$\tau_m$是一个固定效应,捕捉了不可观察的(对计量经济学家来说)$p_{j m}^w$与$p_{j m}$的市场平均百分比偏差,特别是经销商的加价。${ }^{17}$将$\tau_m$解释为未观察到的特定市场的经销商加成将在下面使用。这与欧共体汽车制造商的标准做法是一致的。事实上,正如《垄断和合并委员会》(1992)所讨论的那样,经销商加价通常是按税前消费者价目$p_{j m} /\left(1+t_m\right)$的百分比计算的

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