经济代写|发展经济学代写Development Economics代考|CVEN5838

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经济代写|发展经济学代写Development Economics代考|Geography – Implications for Sustainable Rural Development

In terms of geographic movement, a historically known pathway involved a rapid process of urbanization, as a natural consequence of movement towards manufacturing and services. Paradoxically, rural development in the context of structural transformation is also accompanied by a concentration of economic activity in urban areas. However, if the historical assumptions for development pathways do not hold true anymore and if the previous analysis on distribution of incomes and cross-sectoral movements materialize, it will mean that the existing rural-urban divide will be exacerbated further. The changing fundamentals of sustainable structural transformation, including premature de-industrialization call for attention to specific aspects of rural development. First, the role of rural non-farm economy will become more important in absorbing the excess labour from agriculture (Barret et al., 2015). The rural non-farm sector provides a crucial

bridge between commodity-based agriculture and livelihoods earned in the modern industrial and service sectors in urban centres (Haggblade et al., 2007). Many factors determine the nature and scope of rural populations’ participation in the non-farm economy, including asset endowments (such as land, livestock and real estate), quality of human resources and skills, quality of local governance, and linkages with urban markets (Davis and Bezemer, 2004; Haggblade et al., 2007). These are areas of interventions which require systematic policy-level efforts to calibrate focus away from an inherent urban bias in development planning towards a more nuanced and balanced rural focus (Bates, 1981).

Second, the shift of rural labour into the services sector will have to be more systematically geared towards high-productivity sectors (MoF, 2018; UNICRI, 2010). However, such sectors will inevitably carry skill premium in favour of high-skill workers. There is data to suggest that services can indeed substitute for manufacturing as the “escalator” out of poverty (Ghani and O’Connell, 2014). However, there is one major change from past pathways. The skill levels required in both manufacturing and services have been steadily increasing due to the proliferation of technology (Eichengreen and Gupta, 2011). If rural populations are to benefit from such jump, there will have to be more systematic efforts to erase the inherent disadvantages that rural populations face in terms of access to the services which will prepare them for the economy of tomorrow. These are covered in more detail below.

经济代写|发展经济学代写Development Economics代考|Dealing with Disruptions and Moving Forward

Education and employability. In recent decades, countries have built their education systems on two major assumptions: (i) a certain number of people will be absorbed into various kinds of employment based on the level of education attained, and (ii) education is a one-time endeavour, after which people will hold onto lifetime of employment. Technology will challenge these assumptions. Post-war prosperity involved mass absorption of workers into jobs requiring different mixes of skills, from process operatives in manufacturing or clerical administration to bankers, accountants and lawyers. Such jobs demanded robust schooling systems inculcating basic literacy and technical skills for low- and lower-middle-skilled workers and tertiary education for those in the middle-skilled and highly skilled jobs.
The disproportionate influence of technology will change the profile of lower- and middle-skilled jobs. Education systems will need to be realigned to prepare people for redefined jobs and economies. Inevitably, proliferation of technology creates a skill bias in labour markets (Acemoglu and Autor, 2010), as has been covered earlier. This will be a bigger challenge in developing countries because of their weaker financial and institutional capacities and because they start from a lower base. As the McKinsey report $A F u$ ture that Works states, education systems will need to evolve for a changed workplace. Policymakers will need to work with education providers to improve basic skills in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics, and to put a new emphasis on creativity, as well as on critical and systems thinking. This will better enable the workforce to move from agriculture to high-value manufacturing and services. In fact, this becomes even more critical for rural populations which are oftentimes marginalized in the educational sphere and elsewhere. In the absence of such a jump, the workforce might become embedded in low-productivity service sectors.
Rapid strides in technology will also mean that displaced workers of today will need to be accommodated in other jobs tomorrow. The labour force will need to constantly learn and keep up to date with technological advances. This will require institutions and systems for lifelong learning (UN DESA, 2017).

经济代写|发展经济学代写Development Economics代考|CVEN5838

经济代写|发展经济学代写发展经济学代考|地理学-对可持续农村发展的影响

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就地理迁移而言,历史上已知的一条路径涉及城市化的快速进程,这是向制造业和服务业迁移的自然结果。矛盾的是,在结构转变的背景下的农村发展也伴随着经济活动集中在城市地区。但是,如果对发展途径的历史假设不再成立,如果以前关于收入分配和跨部门流动的分析成为现实,这将意味着现有的城乡差距将进一步加剧。可持续的结构转型,包括过早的去工业化,其根本在不断变化,需要注意农村发展的具体方面。首先,农村非农经济在吸收农业过剩劳动力方面的作用将变得更加重要(Barret et al., 2015)。农村非农部门提供了一个关键的

以商品为基础的农业与城市中心现代工业和服务部门赚取的生计之间的桥梁(Haggblade等,2007年)。许多因素决定了农村人口参与非农经济的性质和范围,包括资产禀赋(如土地、牲畜和房地产)、人力资源和技能的质量、地方治理的质量以及与城市市场的联系(Davis和Bezemer, 2004年;Haggblade等人,2007)。这些领域的干预措施需要在政策一级进行系统的努力,以校准发展规划的重点,使其从固有的城市倾向转向更加细致和平衡的农村重点(Bates, 1981年) 其次,农村劳动力向服务部门的转移必须更系统地面向高生产率部门(财政部,2018;Unicri, 2010)。然而,这些行业将不可避免地带来技能溢价,有利于高技能工人。有数据表明,服务业确实可以取代制造业,成为摆脱贫困的“电梯”(Ghani和O’Connell, 2014)。然而,与过去的路径相比,有一个主要的变化。由于技术的普及,制造业和服务业所需的技能水平一直在稳步提高(Eichengreen和Gupta, 2011)。如果农村人口要从这种增长中受益,就必须作出更系统的努力,消除农村人口在获得服务方面所面临的固有劣势,而这些服务将使他们为未来的经济做好准备。下面将详细介绍。

经济代写|发展经济学代写发展经济学代考|处理中断和向前推进


教育和就业能力。近几十年来,各国将其教育制度建立在两个主要假设之上:(i)根据所受教育程度,一定数量的人将被吸收从事各种就业;(ii)教育是一次性的努力,之后人们将终身就业。科技将挑战这些假设。战后的繁荣包括大量工人被吸收到需要不同技能组合的工作中,从制造业的操作人员或文书管理人员到银行家、会计师和律师。这类工作需要健全的教育体系,向低技能和中低技能工人灌输基本的识字和技术技能,向中等技能和高技能工作人员提供高等教育。技术不成比例的影响将改变低技能和中等技能工作的概况。教育系统需要重新调整,让人们为重新定义的工作和经济做好准备。不可避免的是,技术的扩散在劳动力市场上造成了技能偏见(Acemoglu和Autor, 2010),这在前面已经提到过。这对发展中国家来说将是一个更大的挑战,因为它们的财政和体制能力较弱,而且起点较低。正如麦肯锡的报告$A F u$ ture所言,教育系统将需要为改变了的工作场所而进化。政策制定者将需要与教育提供者合作,提高科学、技术、工程和数学领域的基本技能,并将新的重点放在创造力以及批判性和系统思维上。这将更好地使劳动力从农业转移到高价值的制造业和服务业。事实上,这对在教育领域和其他领域往往被边缘化的农村人口来说更加关键。如果没有这样的增长,劳动力可能会进入生产率较低的服务业。技术的快速进步也意味着今天被取代的工人明天将需要在其他工作岗位上工作。劳动力需要不断学习和跟上技术的进步。这将需要终生学习的机构和系统(联合国经社部,2017年)

经济代写|发展经济学代写Development Economics代考

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