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经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|From Short-Period to Long-Period Supply
The short-period $A C$ and $M C$ curves were derived for a given fixed plant and given fixed cost and rentals of inputs. We can now extend the analysis to the long period, i.e. to the analytical situation where we treat all inputs as variable, by imagining that the price-taking firm can choose among a set of different fixed plants, each one entailing a certain fixed cost; input rentals are still given; for each fixed plant the firm can derive the $A C$ and $M C$ curves which have the shapes of – Fig. 5.6. We need not assume perfect divisibility of the elements which go to form a fixed plant. For each level of $\mathrm{q}$, there will be a fixed plant which allows producing it at the lowest $A C$. The locus of these lowest long-period $A C$ ‘s as functions of $\mathrm{q}$ is the long-period average cost curve, $L A C$. The smallest of the minimum average costs associated with the several alternative fixed plants is the long-period minimum average cost, $\operatorname{Min} L A C$; indicate the associated output as $q^*$ (৫ Fig. 5.7).
The long-period average cost curve LAC is the lower envelope of the (short-period) average cost curves associated with different fixed plants, cf. – Fig. 5.8. Along the LAC curve the type of fixed plant changes. If the different alternative fixed plants are so numerous and their short-period average cost curves change so gradually as to determine a differentiable lower envelope as in – Fig. $5.8$ (traditionally this was obtained by conceiving the possible short-period fixed plants to be a continuum, corresponding to the ‘quantity of capital’ embodied in each plant, where capital was the single factor of variable ‘form’ already encountered when discussing the differentiability of production functions), then each point of the LAC curve is tangent to one short-period average cost curve, but not at the point of minimum $\mathrm{AC}$ of that short-period average cost curve, except when the MinLAC is reached. The graphical representation shows this fact clearly enough, so I omit the mathematical proof.
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Product Exhaustion Theorem with U-Shaped LAC
In the previous section we admitted that firms might be able to reach $\operatorname{MinLAC}$ at several levels of output, or at a single one. Disagreements among economists on this issue were mentioned in Sect. $5.6 .3$ and Fn. 19, with some, e.g. Edith Penrose, arguing that in many instances firms are able to grow to enormous sizes without any increase in average cost and therefore the limits to size must be found either on the demand side or on the need for own capital or collateral; and others arguing that the general case is U-shaped $L A C$ curves because of control difficulties of management over subordinates that increase with size. In the face of the empirical evidence of more and more mammoth firms and increasing concentration in many industries, it would seem Penrose got it right.
Assuming now that maximum output is a continuous function of total cost and that the LAC curve is $\mathrm{U}$-shaped, returns to cost are increasing where $L A C$ is decreasing in $q$ and are decreasing where $L A C$ is increasing in $q$; hence $\operatorname{Min} L A C$ is reached where the returns to costs, in passing from locally increasing to locally decreasing, are locally constant. If the production function is differentiable with respect to all inputs, ${ }^{30}$ then the locally constant returns to costs at $\operatorname{Min} L A C$, that is, the equality of average and marginal cost, imply locally constant technical returns to scale. I prove this for the two-factors case. At the point of minimum average cost it is
$$
M C=\frac{v_1}{M P_1}=\frac{v_2}{M P_2}=A C=\frac{v_1 x_1+v_2 x_2}{f\left(x_1, x_2\right)} ;
$$
this can be rewritten $$
f\left(x_1, x_2\right)=\frac{v_1 x_1+v_2 x_2}{M C}=\frac{v_1 x_1}{\frac{v_1}{M P_1}}+\frac{v_2 x_2}{\frac{v_2}{M P_2}}=M P_1 x_1+M P_2 x_2,
$$
which implies that the production function is locally homogeneous of degree 1 .
This implies that, if $p=\operatorname{Min} L A C$, the payment to each factor of its marginal revenue product exhausts revenue. Thus the fact that the long-period cost curve is U-shaped entails no contradiction between assuming zero profits of competitive firms in long-period equilibrium, and assuming that each factor is paid its marginal revenue product, because in long-period equilibrium the firm produces where returns to scale are locally constant.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|From Short-Period to Long-Period Supply
短期的一个C和米C曲线是针对给定的固定工厂和给定的固定成本和投入租金得出的。我们现在可以将分析扩展到长期,即我们将所有投入都视为变量的分析情况,假设定价公司可以在一组不同的固定工厂中进行选择,每一个都需要一定的固定成本;仍然给出投入租金;对于每个固定工厂,公司可以得出一个C和米C曲线具有 – 图 5.6 的形状。我们不需要假设构成固定工厂的元素完全可分。对于每个级别q,将有一个固定的工厂,允许以最低的价格生产它一个C. 这些最低长周期的轨迹一个C的作为函数q是长期平均成本曲线,大号一个C. 与几个替代固定工厂相关的最小平均成本是长期最低平均成本,敏大号一个C; 将关联的输出表示为q∗(৫ 图 5.7)。
长期平均成本曲线 LAC 是与不同固定工厂相关的(短期)平均成本曲线的下包络线,参见 – 图 5.8。沿着 LAC 曲线,固定设备的类型发生变化。如果不同的替代固定工厂如此之多,并且它们的短期平均成本曲线变化如此缓慢,以至于确定了一个可区分的下包络线,如图所示。5.8(传统上,这是通过将可能的短期固定工厂设想为一个连续体来获得的,对应于每个工厂中体现的“资本数量”,其中资本是在讨论可区分性时已经遇到的可变“形式”的单一因素生产函数),则 LAC 曲线的每个点都与一条短期平均成本曲线相切,但不在最小值点一个C短期平均成本曲线,除非达到 MinLAC。图形表示足够清楚地表明了这一事实,因此我省略了数学证明。
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Product Exhaustion Theorem with U-Shaped LAC
在上一节中,我们承认公司可能能够达到 MinLAC在多个输出级别或单个输出级别。经济学家在这个问 够在不增加平均成本的情况下发展到巨大的规模,因此必须在需求方面或对自有资本的需求或抵押品;和 其他人认为一般情况是 U 形的 $L A C$ 曲线是因为管理对下属的控制难度随着规模的增加而增加。面对越来 越多的大型公司和许多行业日益集中的经验证据,彭罗斯似乎做对了。
现在假设最大产出是总成本的连续函数,并且 LAC 曲线是U形,成本回报在哪里增加 $L A C$ 正在减少 $q$ 并且 在哪里减少 $L A C$ 正在增加 $q$; 因此 $\operatorname{Min} L A C$ 在从局部增加到局部减小的过程中,成本回报在局部不变的情 况下达到。如果生产函数对于所有投入都是可微的, ${ }^{30}$ 那么局部不变的成本回报率为 $M i n L A C$ ,即平均 成本和边际成本相等,意味着规模技术报酬局部不变。我在两个因青的情况下证明了这一点。在最低平均 成本点是
$$
M C=\frac{v_1}{M P_1}=\frac{v_2}{M P_2}=A C=\frac{v_1 x_1+v_2 x_2}{f\left(x_1, x_2\right)}
$$
这可以重写
$$
f\left(x_1, x_2\right)=\frac{v_1 x_1+v_2 x_2}{M C}=\frac{v_1 x_1}{\frac{v_1}{M P_1}}+\frac{v_2 x_2}{\frac{v_2}{M P_2}}=M P_1 x_1+M P_2 x_2,
$$
这意味着生产函数是 1 次局部同质的。
这意味着,如果 $p=\operatorname{Min} L A C$ ,支付给每个要龶的边际收益乘积耗尽了收益。因此,长期成本曲线是 $U$ 形这一事实在假设长期均衡中竞争企业的零利润与假设每个要责都得到其边际收益产品之间没有矛盾,因为在长期均衡中,企业在规模报酬局部不变的情况下产生。

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