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电子工程代写|计算机网络概论代写Introduction to Computer Networking代考|Carrier Sense Multiple Access
The MAC protocol that non-switched variants of Ethernet use is carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD). In the original form of Ethernet, all the computers were attached to a bus (a piece of coaxial cable which acted as a common highway for data transmission). Only one conversation between two network stations at a time was possible and a protocol such as CSMA/CD was needed to allow a computer access to the bus. When CSMA/CD is in use, a station that wishes to transmit listens to the bus. If there seems to be no activity, the station transmits (carrier sense). Multiple access means that all stations have access to the network medium (the cable). Once a station starts transmitting. all other stations will almost immediately detect the transmission and will wait until it has finished before trying to send anything themselves. IIowever, it is still possible that two stations will both detect that the bus is idle, and that both start to transmit at about the same time. Then there will be a collision of data. The reason why this can happen is that any signal takes some time to propagate along the bus. Collision detection is needed to deal with this problem.
If a station detects a collision while it is transmitting, it sends a brief jamming signal. This signal lets the other stations know that there has been a collision. After sending the jamming signal, the station ceases transmission and then waits for a random time period. When this period is up, the station attempts to transmit again. If there are repeated collisions, this indicates a busy medium. To adjust for this, the time delay between repeated retransmission attempts is progressively increased. This is called the binary exponential backoff algorithm. If there are sixteen unsuccessful attempts to transmit (a very rare occurrence), the frame transmission is abandoned and the upper layer is informed of this.
电子工程代写|计算机网络概论代写Introduction to Computer Networking代考|Ethernet Frame Format
In both types of frame, the next two fields are for the destination (receiving station) and source (sending station) addresses. Both these addresses are 48 bits long and are usually shown as 12 hexadecimal digits. Every Ethernet card in the world has a unique MAC address. The first six hex digits indicate the manufacturer of the card; the second six are a unique identifier. For example, a certain Ethernet $\mathrm{NIC}$ has the following MAC address: 00-02-44-37-60-FA. The 00-02-44 part of the number identifies the manufacturer; 37-60-FA is the unique identifier.
The purpose of the next (two-byte) field differs in the two types of frame. In Ethernet II, the receiving station has to find out which higher-layer protocol is being carried in an incoming frame. It needs to know this in order to know to which upper-layer protocol it must give the data. It finds this out by looking inside the Type field. In IEEE 802.3, this field can be used as a Type field, but alternatively can be used to carry the length of the data in bytes. There is no need to use this field to identify the protocol if the LLC field (missing from Ethernet II) is being used to do this. If the number is equal to or greater than 600 hexadecimal (1536 decimal), then it is taken to indicate the length.
The whole point of sending an Ethernet frame is to carry some data. The Data field is the place where the data is put. The greatest size of a frame that is allowed in low-speed versions of Ethernet is 1518 bytes; the minimum size is 46 bytes. If the frame would otherwise be below the minimum size, it is padded out with extra bytes to make it legal. The IEEE $802.3$ frame also carries the LLC information within the Data field. The $1000 \mathrm{Base}-\mathrm{T}$ Gigabit Ethernet standard permits frames larger than 1518 bytes. Up to 9 kbytes can be carried in one frame-a so-called jumbo frame.
Finally, in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field, there is a 32 bits CRC code to check for errors. This checks the integrity of the whole frame except the Preamble/Start Frame Delimiter and of course the CRC field itself. (CRCs were explained in Section 2.6.1.) Any frame with an invalid CRC is simply thrown away without being processed any further because it is useless.

电子工程代写|计算机网络概论代写Introduction to Computer Networking代考|Carrier Sense Multiple Access
以太网的非交换变体使用的 MAC 协议是载波侦听多路访问/冲突检测 (CSMA/CD)。在以太网的原始形式中,所有计算机都连接到总线(一条同轴电缆,用作数据传输的公共高速公路)。一次只能在两个网络站之间进行一次对话,并且需要诸如 CSMA/CD 之类的协议来允许计算机访问总线。当使用 CSMA/CD 时,希望发送的站会监听总线。如果似乎没有活动,则站发送(载波侦听)。多路访问意味着所有站都可以访问网络介质(电缆)。一旦一个站开始传输。所有其他站点几乎会立即检测到传输,并会等到传输完成后再尝试自己发送任何内容。然而,仍然有可能两个站都检测到总线空闲,并且两个站大约同时开始传输。然后就会发生数据冲突。发生这种情况的原因是任何信号都需要一些时间才能沿总线传播。需要碰撞检测来处理这个问题。
如果一个站点在传输过程中检测到冲突,它会发送一个简短的干扰信号。该信号让其他站知道发生了冲突。发送干扰信号后,电台停止传输,然后等待一段随机时间。当此周期结束时,该站将尝试再次发送。如果有重复的冲突,这表明一个繁忙的媒体。为了对此进行调整,重复重传尝试之间的时间延迟逐渐增加。这称为二进制指数退避算法。如果有 16 次不成功的传输尝试(非常罕见的情况),则放弃帧传输并通知上层。
电子工程代写|计算机网络概论代写Introduction to Computer Networking代考|Ethernet Frame Format
在这两种类型的帧中,接下来的两个字段用于目的地(接收站)和源(发送站)地址。这两个地址都是 48 位长,通常显示为 12 个十六进制数字。世界上的每张以太网卡都有一个唯一的 MAC 地址。前六个十六进制数字表示卡的制造商;后六个是唯一标识符。例如,某个以太网ñ我C具有以下 MAC 地址:00-02-44-37-60-FA。编号的 00-02-44 部分标识制造商;37-60-FA 是唯一标识符。
下一个(两字节)字段的用途在两种类型的帧中有所不同。在以太网 II 中,接收站必须找出传入帧中承载的更高层协议。它需要知道这一点,以便知道它必须将数据提供给哪个上层协议。它通过查看 Type 字段来发现这一点。在 IEEE 802.3 中,该字段可用作类型字段,但也可用于承载以字节为单位的数据长度。如果使用 LLC 字段(以太网 II 中缺少)来执行此操作,则无需使用此字段来识别协议。如果数字等于或大于十六进制的 600(十进制的 1536),则取其表示长度。
发送以太网帧的全部目的是携带一些数据。数据字段是放置数据的地方。以太网低速版本允许的最大帧大小为 1518 字节;最小大小为 46 字节。如果帧本来会低于最小大小,则会用额外的字节填充它以使其合法。IEEE802.3帧还在数据字段中携带 LLC 信息。这1000乙一个s和−吨千兆以太网标准允许大于 1518 字节的帧。一个帧中最多可以承载 9 KB,即所谓的巨型帧。
最后,在帧校验序列 (FCS) 字段中,有一个 32 位的 CRC 码来检查错误。这将检查除前导码/起始帧定界符之外的整个帧的完整性,当然还有 CRC 字段本身。(CRC 在第 2.6.1 节中进行了解释。)任何具有无效 CRC 的帧都被简单地丢弃,而不进行任何进一步处理,因为它是无用的。

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